DOCUMENT
1: Mao Tse-tung, TACTICS AGAINST JAPANESE IMPERIALISM
December
27, 1935
[This
report was given by Comrade Mao Tse-tung at the conference of Party activists
which was held at Wayaopao, northern Shensi, after the Wayaopao meeting of the
Political Bureau of the Central Committee in December 1935.]
Comrades! A great change
has now taken place in the political situation. Our Party has defined its tasks
in the light of this changed situation.What is the present situation?
Its main characteristic
is that Japanese imperialism wants to turn China into a colony.
As we all know, for
nearly a hundred years China has been a semi-colonial country jointly dominated
by several imperialist powers. Owing to the Chinese people's struggle against
imperialism and to conflicts among the imperialist powers, China has been able
to retain a semi-independent status. For a time World War I gave Japanese
imperialism the opportunity of dominating China exclusively. But the treaty
surrendering China to Japan, the Twenty-one Demands [1] signed by Yuan Shih-kai, [2]
the arch-traitor of that time, was inevitably rendered null and void as a
result of the Chinese people's fight against Japanese imperialism and of the
intervention by other imperialist powers. In 1922 at the Washington Nine-Power
Conference called by the United States. A treaty [3] was signed which once again placed China under the joint
domination of several imperialist powers. But before long the situation changed
again. The Incident of September 18, 1931, [4]
began the present stage of Japan's colonization of China. As Japanese
aggression was temporarily limited to the four northeastern provinces, [5] some people felt that the Japanese
imperialists would probably advance no farther. Today things are different. The
Japanese imperialists have already shown their intention of penetrating south
of the Great Wall and occupying all China. Now they want to convert the whole
of China from a semi-colony shared by several imperialist powers into a colony
monopolized by Japan. The recent Eastern Hopei Incident [6] and diplomatic talks[7]
are clear indications of this trend of events which threatens the survival of
the whole Chinese people. This faces all classes and political groups in China
with the question of what to do. Resist? Surrender? Or vacillate between the
two?
Now let us see how the
different classes in China answer this question.The workers and the peasants
are all demanding resistance. The revolution of 1924-27, the agrarian
revolution from 1927 to the present day, and the anti-Japanese tide since the
Incident of September 18, 1931, have all proved that the working class and
peasantry are the most resolute forces in the Chinese revolution.
The
big local tyrants and evil gentry, the big warlords and the big bureaucrats and
compradors have long made up their minds. They maintain, as they have done all
along, that revolution of whatever kind is worse than imperialism. They have
formed a camp of traitors, for whom the question of whether to become slaves of
a foreign nation simply does not exist because they have already lost all sense
of nationality and their interests are inseparably linked with imperialism.
Their chieftain is Chiang Kai-shek.[9]
This camp of traitors are deadly enemies of the Chinese people. Japanese
imperialism could not have become so blatant in its aggression were it not for
this pack of traitors. They are the running dogs of imperialism.
When
the revolutionary situation changes, revolutionary tactics and methods of
leadership must change accordingly. The task of the Japanese imperialists, the
collaborators and the traitors is to turn China into a colony, while our task
is to turn China into a free and independent country with full territorial
integrity.
To
win independence and freedom for China is a great task. It demands that we
fight against foreign imperialism and the domestic counter-revolutionary
forces. Japanese imperialism is determined to bludgeon its way deep into China.
As yet the domestic counter-revolutionary forces of the big landlord and
comprador classes are stronger than the people's revolutionary forces. The
overthrow of Japanese imperialism and the counter-revolutionary forces in China
cannot be accomplished in a day, and we must be prepared to devote a long time
to it; it cannot be accomplished by small forces, and we must therefore
accumulate great forces. In China, as in the world as a whole, the
counter-revolutionary forces are weaker than before and the revolutionary
forces stronger. This estimate is correct, representing one aspect of the
matter. At the same time, it must be pointed out that the counter-revolutionary
forces in China and in the world as a whole are stronger than the revolutionary
forces for the time being. This estimate is also correct, representing another
aspect of the matter. The uneven political and economic development of China
gives rise to the uneven development of her revolution. As a rule, revolution
starts, grows and triumphs first in those places in which the
counterrevolutionary forces are comparatively weak, while it has yet to start
or grows very slowly in those places in which they are strong. Such has long
been the situation for the Chinese revolution. It can be predicted that the
general revolutionary situation will grow further at certain stages in the
future but that the unevenness will remain. The transformation of this
unevenness into a general evenness will require a very long time, very great
efforts, and the Party's application of a correct line. Seeing that the
revolutionary war led by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union [28] took three years to conclude, we must be
prepared to devote to the already protracted revolutionary war led by the
Chinese Communist Party the longer time necessary to dispose of the domestic
and foreign counter-revolutionary forces finally and thoroughly.
United
front tactics are the only Marxist-Leninist tactics. The tactics of
closed-doorism are, on the contrary, the tactics of the regal isolationist.
Closed-doorism just "drives the fish into deep waters and the sparrows
into the thickets", and it will drive the millions upon millions of the
masses, this mighty army, over to the enemy's side, which will certainly win
his acclaim. In practice, closed-doorism is the faithful servant of the
Japanese imperialists and the traitors and collaborators. Its adherents' talk
of the "pure" and the "straight" will be condemned by
Marxist-Leninists and commended by the Japanese imperialists. We definitely
want no closed-doorism; what we want is the revolutionary national united
front, which will spell death to the Japanese imperialists and the traitors
and collaborators.
At
the present time, the basic task of such a government should be to oppose the
annexation of China by Japanese imperialism. There is the old adage, "In
the Spring and Autumn Era there were no righteous wars."[32] This is even truer of imperialism today,
for it is only the oppressed nations and the oppressed classes that can wage
just wars. In the past, the Chinese revolutionary forces were temporarily cut
off from the world revolutionary forces by Chiang Kai-shek, and in this sense
we were isolated. Now the situation has changed, and changed to our advantage.
Henceforth it will continue to change to our advantage. We can no longer be
isolated. This provides a necessary condition for China's victory in the war
against Japan and for victory in the Chinese revolution.
DOCUMENT
2: The Nanking Massacre, 1937
The Japanese occupation
of Nanking, the capital of the Republic of China, lead to one of the greatest
horrors of the century . This eyewitness report was filed by a New York Times
reporter.
Aboard the U.S.S. Oahu
at Shanghai, Dec. 17 [1937].
Through
wholesale atrocities and vandalism at Nanking the Japanese Army has thrown away
a rare opportunity to gain the respect and confidence of the Chinese
inhabitants and of foreign opinion there....The killing of civilians was
widespread. Foreigners who traveled widely through the city Wednesday found
civilian dead on every street. Some of the victims were aged men, women and
children.
Policemen and firemen
were special objects of attack. Many victims were bayoneted and some of the
wounds were barbarously cruel.
Any person who ran because
of fear or excitement was likely to be killed on the spot as was any one caught
by roving patrols in streets or alleys after dark. Many slayings were witnessed
by foreigners.
The Japanese looting
amounted almost to plundering of the entire city. Nearly every building was
entered by Japanese soldiers, often under the eyes of their officers, and the
men took whatever they wanted. The Japanese soldiers often impressed Chinese to
carry their loot....
The mass executions of
war prisoners added to the horrors the Japanese brought to Nanking. After
killing the Chinese soldiers who threw down their arms and surrendered, the
Japanese combed the city for men in civilian garb who were suspected of being
former soldiers.
In one building in the
refugee zone 400 men were seized. They were marched off, tied in batches of
fifty, between lines of riflemen and machine gunners, to the execution ground.
Just before boarding the
ship for Shanghai the writer watched the execution of 200 men on the Bund
[dike]. The killings took ten minutes. The men were lined against a wall and
shot. Then a number of Japanese, armed with pistols, trod nonchalantly around
the crumpled bodies, pumping bullets into any that were still kicking.
The army men performing
the gruesome job had invited navy men from the warships anchored off the Bund
to view the scene. A large group of military spectators apparently greatly
enjoyed the spectacle.
When the first column of
Japanese troops marched from the South Gate up Chungshan Road toward the city's
Big Circle, small knots of Chinese civilians broke into scattering cheers, so
great was their relief that the siege was over and so high were their hopes
that the Japanese would restore peace and order. There are no cheers in Nanking
now for the Japanese.
By despoiling the city
and population the Japanese have driven deeper into the Chinese a repressed
hatred that will smolder through tears as forms of the antiJapanism that Tokyo
professes to be fighting to eradicate from China.
The capture of Nanking
was the most overwhelming defeat suffered by the Chinese and one of the most
tragic military debacles in the history of modern warfare. In attempting to
defend Nanking the Chinese allowed themselves to be surrounded and then
systematically slaughtered....
The flight of the many
Chinese soldiers was possible by only a few exits. Instead of sticking by their
men to hold the invaders at bay with a few strategically placed units while the
others withdrew, many army leaders deserted, causing panic among the rank and file.
Those who failed to
escape through the gate leading to Hsiakwan and from there across the Yangtze
were caught and executed....
When theJapanese captured
Hsiakwan gate they cut off all exit from the city while at least a third of the
Chinese Army still was within the walls.
Because of the
disorganization of the Chinese a number of units continued fighting Tuesday
noon, many of these not realizing the Japanese had surrounded them and that
their cause was hopeless. Japanese tank patrols systematically eliminated
these.
Tuesday morning, while
attempting to motor to Hsiakwan, I encountered a desperate group of about
twentyfive Chinese soldiers who were still holding the Ningpo Guild Building
on Chungahan Road. They later surrendered.
Thousands of prisoners
were executed by the Japanese. Most of the Chinese soldiers who had been
interned in the safety zone were shot in masses. The city was combed in a
systematic housetohouse search for men having knapsack marks on their
shoulders or other signs of having been soldiers. They were herded together and
executed.
Many were killed where
they were found, including men innocent of any army connection and many wounded
soldiers and civilians. I witnessed three mass executions of prisoners within a
few hours Wednesday. In one slaughter a tank gun was turned on a group of more
than 100 soldiers at a bomb shelter near the Ministry of Communications.
A favorite method of
execution was to herd groups of a dozen men at entrances of dugout and to shoot
them so the bodies toppled inside. Dirt then was shoveled in and the men
buried.
Since the beginning of
the Japanese assault on Nanking the city presented a frightful appearance. The
Chinese facilities for the care of army wounded were tragically inadequate, so
as early as a week ago injured men were seen often on the streets, some
hobbling, others crawling along seeking treatment.
Civilian casualties also
were heavy, amounting to thousands. The only hospital open was the American
managed University Hospital and its facilities were inadequate for even a
fraction of those hurt.
Nanking's streets were
littered with dead. Sometimes bodies had to be moved before automobiles could
pass.
The capture of Hsiakwan
Gate by the Japanese was accompanied by the mass killing of the defenders, who
were piled up among the sandbags, forming a mound six feet high. Late Wednesday
the Japanese had not removed the dead, and two days of heavy military traffic
had been passing through, grinding over the remains of men, dogs and horses.
The Japanese appear to
want the horrors to remain as long as possible, to impress on the Chinese the
terrible results of resisting Japan.
Chungahan Road was a long
avenue of filth and discarded uniforms, rifles, pistols, machine guns,
fieldpieces, knives and knapsacks. In some places the Japanese had to hitch
tanks to debris to clear the road.
From F. Tillman,
"All Captives Slain,'' The New York Times, December 18, 1937, pp. 1, 10.
DOCUMENT
3: Warsaw Uprising, 1944, August 2–October 1
Albert
Mroz. Armored Chevys in the Warsaw Uprising of 1944.
The
uprising in Warsaw during World War II does not immediately cause automotive
historians to think about 1938 Chevrolet trucks. In fact, the thought of a
Chevy truck outfitted with homemade armor being used to attack the German army
sounds, at the very least, futile. Yet that is exactly what happened in Poland
in 1944.
Three
years before World War II began in Europe, General Motors signed an agreement
with Lilpop, Rau and Loewenstein Company in Warsaw to assemble Chevrolet cars
and trucks, and Buick 90 limousines. This company had specialized in building
railroad cars for many years, but after the invasion and occupation of Poland
by the Nazis at the end of 1939, they ceased operations, as did many other
factories and enterprises in Poland. In this state of war it was impossible to
continue manufacturing, however, numerous vehicles had been built and imported
in the previous years.
When
the Warsaw Uprising started in early August 1944, the idea of creating an
improvised armored vehicle came up immediately in an effort to offset the
otherwise insurmountable odds that the partisans faced. Chevrolet trucks that
had been assembled by Lilpop, Rau and Loewnstein were the first choice for such
a tall order.
Historian
Norman Davies, in his book God's Playground, writes, "The
Resistance Movement flourished from the start. For the Poles, there was no
question of collaboration. There was never a Polish Quisling … When it was seen
that no advantages were gained by submission, increasing numbers turned to
resistance."
A
great example of the ingenuity and perseverance of the AK (Home Army) was the
creation of improvised armored vehicles. One was called Kubus and still
exists, on display in the Warsaw Military Museum. It was built in ten days at
the Powisle Electrical Plant machine shop on a 157-in Chevrolet chassis of 1938
vintage. The work of mounting the armor plate was assigned to Edmund Frydrych
who was an experienced craftsman at the plant. It was then turned over to
Walerian Bielecki and another welder named Adolf Leszek, under foreman Jozef
Fernik. Kubus was the nickname of Jozef Fernik's wife, who had been a
doctor before she was killed by the Wehrmacht a few weeks earlier.
As
construction began on Kubus, the wartime gasoline shortage was an
immediate concern, so, like many vehicles during WW II on both sides in Europe,
Kubus was modified to run on wood gas. In order to mount the armor
plating, the partisans at the electrical plant used both acetylene and electric
welders, and gathered sheet metal from wherever it could be found in the
vicinity. Some of the best plates came from safes which had hardened steel. In
order to determine which pieces were best suited for various parts of the
vehicle, the workers tested the sheet metal by firing point blank with
different rifles. As a result, they decided not to position any of the 6 mm
(approx. 1/4-in) sheet metal perpendicular to the ground, as that position was
most vulnerable to penetration.
Consequently,
the entire armor plating was welded to the truck at the optimum angles. In
addition, the thin metal plate was doubled in many areas and had a 3 cm
(.72-in) gap between layers that was filled in with wood ash to prevent heavier
gun fire or shrapnel from piercing the metal. There was no way to obtain
heavier armor plate, and at least this kept the weight down since the Chevy had
its capacity limitations. However, experiments showed that the ash did not help
much, so this idea was abandoned in favor of enlarging the air gap from 3 cm to
6 cm.
The
hatch at the top of the Kubus created an extremely vulnerable situation,
making an easy target of anyone who entered or exited the vehicle. Consequently
they decided to put a door underneath where the crew and transported soldiers
could enter and exit, which was feasible due to the Chevy's relatively high
ground clearance, even with flat tires. Nevertheless, this was a severe
limitation, but there was no time to develop a heavy hinged door. Small
openings on the sides of the cab were primarily gun slots but also helped
visibility; however, night driving was extremely difficult since it had only a
narrow slit for a windshield.
On
August 23 Kubus was put into action, carrying eleven AK soldiers plus
the driver, who were armed with a Russian machine gun, a flame thrower, and an
assortment of rifles and handguns. Joining the attack against the German
position at the University was a Sd. Kfz. 251 D armored transporter
half-track, which had been captured on August 14 from the SS "Viking"
Division. A number of men followed behind the vehicles on foot.
The
first action was blowing up the huge steel front gates, which had to be done
using an additional PIAT round and some ramming with the half-track. Most of
the Germans in the front bunker were killed and others retreated. Gunfire
erupted from the windows of the library, killing the AK unit's leader.
The
arrival of two other groups of partisans from the other side was delayed. With
heavy machine gunfire raining down from the building the resistance fighters
decided to retreat, but the Kubus refused to start. The wounded were
loaded up onto the half-track. After several frantic minutes, the Chevy engine,
running on wood gas, finally came to life and the column evacuated from the
area. Even though there were casualties and the coordination with the two other
groups had failed, the attack was considered a success in that it boosted the
morale of the soldiers while causing the Germans real concern. A second
partially-armored vehicle, again using a 157-in Chevrolet cab-chassis but of
earlier vintage, was captured from the German Post Office in Warsaw. It was
used briefly before being destroyed during the incessant bombing of Warsaw.
Kubus
was used two more
times to storm the University side gates with a modicum of success. When the AK
soldiers were forced to retreat from the area of Warsaw, Kubus had its
ignition system removed to keep it from being used by the enemy.
For all the perseverance, bravery, and capture of enemy
materiel, the Resistance was finally for naught, because section after section
of Warsaw fell at the end of September 1944, and the AK was completely
surrounded and over-powered. Without the expected outside support and
intervention which had been previously ex-pressed or promised by British,
American and Soviet forces, surrender was imminent.
During
the Uprising of 1944 the AK lost 20,000 of its own members plus there was an
additional loss of 225,000 Polish civilians, all of them women, children, and
the elderly. The Jewish Ghetto had already been entirely cleared of human life
during the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943.
After
the Wehrmacht took the AK as prisoners of war, the remaining 550,000 civilians
of Warsaw were evicted from the city, and Hitler ordered that Warsaw be
"razed without a trace." Bombers continued to destroy buildings and
demolition crews blew up remaining structures with dynamite and flame-throwers.
After
hesitating for fourteen weeks, the Soviet forces finally advanced into the city
on January 17, 1945. But by that time all 1,289,000 inhabitants of Warsaw were
either killed, missing, dispatched to concentration camps, or forced to flee.
Ninety-three percent of the buildings had been damaged beyond repair or
destroyed completely. In the Warsaw Uprising alone over 245,000 people were
killed. American trucks were once again incorporated into the struggle for
freedom and independence in another part of the world
DOCUMENT 4: In the Warsaw Sewers.
Zeszyty
Historyczne, No. 109, Instytut Literacki, Paris, 1994. By Jan Rossman
'Wacek'.
This
article, with the exception of the reports by SS General Erich von dem Bach and
SS Major General Jürgen Stroop, was published in the monthly magazine Mowia
Wieki No. 8/20 in August of 1959. Translation:
Łukasz Nogalski
* * *
The
designer of Warsaw’s sewer system, an excellent English engineer by the name of
William Lindley, did not expect that Warsaw’s municipal sewer system designed
by him towards the end of the 19th century would be used as transportation for
the military and the civilian population, as well as a place of combat. It was
due to the existence of the municipal sewer system that the remnants of the Old
Town’s defenders and its civil population disappeared mysteriously at the end
of August 1944 before the German occupiers during the Warsaw Uprising. At that
time, around 6,000 people were able to retreat to Warsaw’s downtown district,
and about a 1,000 managed to make it to the Zoliborz district. General von dem
Bach admitted during the capitulation talks that initially he did not recognize
the role of the municipal sewer system and its usefulness as a means of
transportation and communication between Warsaw’s city districts. Indeed it was
the disappearance of the defenders of the Old Town that signified the problem
regarding the municipal sewers to the German forces was a crucial one. From
that point on, “sewer paranoia” developed among the German forces in Warsaw.
The Germans lived in constant anxiety that resistance fighters had the ability
to come out of the sewers unexpectedly and to strike at German positions from
the rear.
Until
the very end of the Warsaw Uprising, the Germans were not able to overcome this
“underground” resistance in Warsaw. The sewer system remained solely the turf
of the Polish underground fighters for the entire duration of the Warsaw
Uprising. The Germans did not succeed in cutting off the sewer system located
in the Zoliborz district from that of Warsaw’s Old Town. The author of these
words took part in several crossings, using the sewers in the Zoliborz
district, the last of which took place on August 30th, 1944 year and led from
the Zoliborz district to Warsaw’s downtown district. During this crossing, the
author was able to visit and carry out a reconnaissance mission nearby at the
Jewish Cemetery on Okopowa Street and also in the New Town district.
The
Germans were afraid of the sewers, and so what was the real essence of the
fighting that took place there? I will recollect and tell about some of the
fighting that took place in the sewers during the last days of the Old Town’s
defense.
Sometime
after the middle of August, the resistance fighters began to use the sewers
leading under Bonifraterska Street, the Gdanski Railway Station, and Stoleczna
Street. There is a sewer junction under the tracks of the Gdanski Railway
Station where the main sewer lines of the city converge: A1 and A2 which run
under Okopowa Street; B runs underneath Marszalkowska Street; and C from underneath
the New Town district and Miodowa Street.
The
sewers come together at a depth of about 12 meters under ground. The sewer
tunnels were high enough to permit people to freely travel through them. The
Germans must have noticed traffic between the Old Town and the Zoliborz
district because from time to time they lobbed grenades under the manhole cover
over this sewer junction. They would lower a listening device into the sewer
well and patiently wait for any sounds coming from underneath. These methods
forced the groups moving about through the sewers to act with utmost care, i.e.
units transporting weapons, slightly wounded troops, civil population, as well
as communication units. Not only was there no possibility of using flashlights
in the sewers, but conversations were also forbidden. More than that, one had
to move so as not to make any noise, like a cat. Just imagine the macabre-like
procession of silent shadows in the deep darkness of a sewer tunnel. In an
extremely difficult manner, the columns moved step by step over the rounded and
slippery bottom of the sewers. One hand rested on the person in front, the
other was placed on the wall of the sewer for balance. Such passage lasted for
several hours. Under the dangerous manhole cover, i.e. one above which were
Germans, one had to pass one person at a time and very quickly. Moreover this
spot was even more unpleasant because in the A1 sewer one could encounter a
rushing stream of water. A crossing was only possible by holding onto a chain
or a rope placed on/across?/at? the spot. When we were crossing under that
manhole with a patrol, it was hard to resist the desire to shoot up a series of
rounds at the Germans.
During
the night of August 25th to the 26th, the last columns made a crossing from the
Old Town. Germans began erecting a heavy dam under the manhole cover on
Muranowska Street. The purpose of this dam was to stop all traffic in the
sewer, and even worse, to significantly raise the water level in the sewers
under Miodowa Street, Krakowskie Przedmiescie, and the New Town district. The
dam was well-built with wooden beams, steel beams, and sandbags. After 2-3
days, news came from the Old Town district that the raised water level in the
sewers has already reached the vicinity of Krasinski Square. It was then the
idea was born to blow up the dam using demolition charges.
The
idea originated with three officers from the Sabotage Section of the Home Army,
who found themselves coincidentally in the Zoliborz district to which they had
come during the last days of open sewer passage from the Old Town. The
commanders of the Zoliborz district did not want to undertake this mission
without the consent of the Commander of the Group North, Col. Wachnowski, who
was located in the Old Town. The only means of communication was a radio-sent
telegram through London. A small radio station from the Zoliborz district sent
the message to London. From there, the message was relayed via radio to the
radio station in the Old Town. Intermediate radio communication between the Old
Town and the Zoliborz district was not possible due to technical
considerations.
Unfortunately,
London would receive and send messages only once a day. Thus, the consent from
Col. Wachnowski was long awaited. When the consent for action came, the mission
was initiated. A three-man patrol reached the dam, coming from the direction of
the Zoliborz district. Three kilograms and a timing device were placed on the
dam. The patrol retreated and safely reached the Zoliborz district, and at the
given hour, the detonation took place. After about a half an hour, water
appeared in the sewers in the Zoliborz district , as well as, various materials
that were now afloat in the sewer. The sewer passage leading from the Old Town
to the Downtown district was dry. as dry? However, only several people later
made their way on the route from Old Town to the Zoliborz district. This part
of the fight for the sewers was won by the insurgents.
Several
days later a group of “sewers rats” from Zoliborz began systematic work. They
carried out reconnaissance missions. An exit to the Vistula River was
discovered, starting from the storm sewer underneath Krasinski Street. It was
further determined that underneath Marszalkowska Street the Germans had
constructed a similar dam to the one on Muranowska Street. The destruction of
this dam by the Zoliborz group was carried out swiftly. The sewer passage from
the Zoliborz district to the Downtown district was thus cleared. The couriers
then set out through this passage. They were usually boy scouts from the 227th
Platoon – young, handy boys. In the middle of September the idea to lay
telephone cables between the Zoliborz district and the Downtown district was
presented. The phone line became operational exactly on the afternoon of the
day during which the Germans began their assault on the Zoliborz district, i.e.
29th September. Unfortunately, as a result of this assault, the phone line was
not used.
The
Germans were frantically afraid of the sewers. As General von dem Bach
recollects, he never managed to convince his soldiers to descend into the
sewers and carry on the struggle there. Germans resorted to throwing grenades
down the manhole covers. In the Mokotow district they also sent poisonous gas
down into the sewers; it was probably carbide. The effects of this gas were so
intense that we observed them even in the Zoliborz district. The indicator
candle, which we burned as we proceeded through the sewers to check the purity
of the air, would not burn for several hours.
As we
gained more experience, our “sewers” techniques became more sophisticated. We
placed informational signs under the major crossroads and at sewer junctions.
In certain spots, namely in wall cavities and on sewer platforms, we set up
reserve food and medical stores, etc… From the Zoliborz district we set out on
far reaching reconnaissance missions to the Wola and Ochota districts.
Nevertheless,
during the above-mentioned capitulation negotiations, von dem Bach admitted
that the Germans did use the sewers, but to a very limited degree. The Germans
would transfer collaborators, ethnic Germans, and Ukrainians back to the city
through the smaller sewers under the Downtown district. These people would come
back to the German-held territory and mix in with the exodus of the city’s populace.
Many of them did not come back. Others did not reach their destinations and
returned with made up intelligence.
Of
those who did not come back, there were individuals who fell into our hands. We
recognized the existing situation, and we carefully checked identity papers and
scrutinized every individual whom we met in the sewers or who we saw was coming
out of them. The major entrances to the sewers were guarded by the resistance
gendarmerie. This struggle in the sewers is unique in the history of the Uprising.
It is also probably one of a kind in the history of warfare.
In
his report to the Commander of the 9th army, General Vormann, on August 29,
1944, General von dem Bach wrote the following:
“Despite
the fact that Polish resistance had undoubtedly inferior heavy weaponry,
according to trustworthy field reports, their certain high human losses are
being constantly replenished by forces from all over Poland. After their
formation and training, the newly formed units, which range from a company to a
battalion, infiltrate into the city through a widely branched out system of
sewers and underground passages. The infiltration has even reached the Old Town
district which is completely surrounded on the surface… This situation has led
to that in the south [Mokotow district] and in the north [Zoliborz district],
the enemy became emboldened to shift to the offensive which until now can still
be repulsed but, in part, only by carrying out counter offensives.”
The
supposedly significant replenishments of the Uprising forces through the sewers
were purely fictional, but this evidences indicates the fact that General Bach
himself was under the spell of the “sewers” paranoia. In reality, the sewers
were utilized in the evacuation of the crews from two city districts, namely
the Old Town and Mokotow, and in maintaining communication between the besieged
parts of the city. There was also an attempt by a squad from the Old Town to
launch a rear attack out of the sewers on the Germans stationed at Bankowy
Square. An exit from the sewers leading out of the city toward the Vistula
River was surveyed and made ready. A telephone line between the Zoliborz
district and the Downtown was laid in the sewers. As it turned out, the sewer
played a significant psychological role in the fighting.
Did
the Germans have combat experience in Warsaw’s underground sewers? An SS and
police commander for the Warsaw district, General Stroop, wrote the following
in his report on the liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto [during the Warsaw Ghetto
Uprising]; the report is dated May 16th, 1943:
“During
the first intrusion into the Ghetto, the Jews and the Polish bandits, through
the use of earlier set fires, were able to repel the forces committed to the
fighting including tanks and armored vehicles… To prevent an escape to the
sewers, the sewer system underneath the Jewish housing district was immediately
flooded; this, however, was an illusion as a result of blowing up of the main
water valves by the Jews.
Jews
hid in the sewers and specially outfitted bunkers. In the first days, it was
assumed that only individual bunkers existed. However, during the course of the
long-lasting mission it turned out that throughout the entire ghetto there was
an organized system of cellars, bunkers, and passages. Every passage and bunker
had access to the sewer system. This sewer system was utilized by the Jews to
cross underground to the Aryan side of the city.
The
Jews were determined to defend themselves and in the process utilized every
possible means and every weapon that was at their disposal. Under the
Polish-Bolshevik leadership, the so-called fighting units were formed which
were supplied with arms and paid any demanded price for the arms that were
possible to obtain.
I
decided to completely annihilate the housing district by burning down every
apartment building including the buildings next to the armory.”
DOCUMENT
5: ERNIE PYLE ARTICLES FROM WAR:
German
Supermen Up Close
NORTHERN
TUNISIA, May 8, 1943 – Before the first day of the great surrender on the Bizerte-Tunis
front was over, I believe half the Americans in the area had German souvenirs
of some sort.
There
was very little of what one would call looting of German supply dumps. The
Germans gave away helmets, goggles and map cases, which they will not be
needing anymore. The spoils of war which the average doughboy has on him are
legitimate, and little enough recompense for his fighting.
Practically
every American truck has a German or Italian helmet fastened to its radiator.
Our motorcycles are decorated like a carnival, with French flags and the
colorful little black-and-yellow death’s-head pennants the Germans use for
marking their own mine fields.
Many
soldiers have new Lugers in their holsters. Lots of our men clowningly wear
German field caps. German goggles are frequently seen on American heads. I got
in on the souvenirs, too. I got one memento that is a little gem. It’s an
automobile – yep, a real automobile that runs.
I
drove back to camp that first evening in my German "Volkswagen," the
bantam car the Nazis use as we use our jeep. It is a topless two-seater with a
rear motor, camouflaged a dirty brown.
Mine
was given me by our 1st Armored Division for – as they said – "sweating it
out with us at Fa•d Pass all winter." As I drove back from the lines,
Americans in the rear would stare, startled-like and belligerent; then, seeing
an American at the wheel they would laugh and wave. I have owned half a dozen
autos in my life, but I’ve never been so proud of one as of my clattering
little Volkswagen.
*
On
that first day of surrender the Germans sat in groups of hundreds in the
fields, just waiting. They lay on their overcoats, resting. They took off their
shirts to sun themselves. They took off their shoes to rest their feet.
They
were a tired army but not a nondescript one. All were extremely well equipped.
Their uniforms were good. They had plenty in the way of little personal things,
money, cigarets, and food. Their equipment was of the best materials.
One
English-appearing soldier had a Gem nail-clipper. He said he paid twenty-five
cents for it in New York in 1939.
Some
were cleanly shaven, some had three- or four-day beards, just like our
soldiers. Lots of them had red-rimmed eyes from lack of sleep.
As a
whole, they seemed younger than our men, and I was surprised that on the
average they didn’t seem as big. But they did appear well fed and in excellent
health.
They
think Americans are fine fighters. They express only good-natured contempt for
their allies, the Italians. As one of them said:
"It
isn’t just that Italians don’t fight well. It’s simply that Germans don’t like
Italians very much in the first place.
Wherever
any American correspondents stopped. prisoners immediately gathered around.
They all seemed in good spirits. Even those who couldn’t speak a word of
English would try hard to tell you something.
*
The
main impression I got, seeing German prisoners, was that they were human like
anybody else, fundamentally friendly, a little vain. Certainly they are not
supermen. Whenever a group of them would form, some American soldier would pop
up with a camera to get a souvenir picture. And every time, all the prisoners
in the vicinity would crowd into the picture like kids.
One
German boy had found a broken armchair leaning against a barn, and was sitting
in it. When I passed he grinned, pointed to his feet and then to the chair
arms, and put back his head in the international sign language for "Boy,
does this chair feel good!"
This
colossal German surrender has done more for American morale here than anything
that could possibly have happened. Winning in battle is like winning at poker
or catching lots of fish – it’s damned pleasant and it sets a man up. As a
result, the hundreds of thousands of Americans in North Africa now are happy
men, laughing and working with new spirits that bubble.
Source: Ernie's War: The Best of Ernie
Pyle's World War II Dispatches, edited by David Nichols, pp. 123-25.
Pictures courtesy of The Lilly Library, Indiana University, Bloomington,
Indiana
DOCUMENT
6: The Illogical Japs (ERNIE PYLE’S ARTICLE
TITLE)
Soldiers
and marines have told me stories by the dozen about how tough the Japs are, yet
how dumb they are; How illogical and yet how uncannily smart at times; how easy
to route when disorganized, yet how brave. I’ve become more confused with each
story. At the end of one evening, I said, "I can’t make head nor tail out
of what you’ve told me. I’m trying to learn about the Jap soldiers, but
everything you say about them seems to be inconsistent."
"That’s
the answer," my friends said. "They are inconsistent. They do the
damndest things. But they are dangerous fighters just the same."
***
They
tell one story about a Jap officer and six men who were surrounded on a beach
by a small bunch of marines.
As
the marines approached, they could see the Jap giving emphatic orders to his
men, and then all six bent over and the officer went along the line and chopped
off their heads with his sword.
Then
as the marines closed in, he stood knee-deep in the surf and beat his bloody
sword against the water in a fierce gesture of defiance, just before they shot
him.
What
code led the officer to kill his own men rather than let them fight to the
death is something only another Jap would know.
***
Another
little story – a marine sentry walking up and down before a command post on top
of a steep bluff one night heard a noise in the brush on the hillside below.
He
called a couple of times, got no answer, then fired an exploratory shot down
into the darkness. In a moment there was a loud explosion from below. A
solitary Jap hiding down there had put a hand grenade to his chest.
Why
he did that, instead of tossing it up over the bluff and getting himself a
half-dozen Americans, is beyond an American’s comprehension.
***
On
Saipan, they tell of a Jap plane that appeared overhead one bright noonday, all
alone. He obviously wasn’t a photographic plane, and they couldn’t figure out
what he was doing.
Then
something came out of the plane, and fluttered down. It was a little paper
wreath, with a long streamer to it. He had flown it all the way from Japan, and
dropped it "in honor of Japan’s glorious dead" on Saipan.
We
shot him down in the sea a few minutes later, as he undoubtedly knew we would
before he ever left Japan. The gesture is touching – but so what?
***
I’ve
talked with marines. I’ve begun to get over that creepy feeling that fighting
Japs is like fighting snakes or ghosts.
They
are, indeed, queer, but they are people with certain tactics, and now, by much
experience, our men have learned how to fight them.
As
far as I can see, our men are no more afraid of the Japs than they are of the
Germans. They are afraid of them as a modern soldier is afraid of his foe, but
not because they are slippery or rat-like, but simply because they have weapons
and fire them like good, tough soldiers. And the Japs are human enough to be
afraid of us exactly the same way.
Some
of our people over here think that, in the long run, the Japs won’t take the
beating the Germans have. Others think they will, and even more.
I’ve
not been here long enough really to learn anything of the Jap psychology. But
the Pacific war is gradually getting condensed, and consequently tougher and
tougher. The closer we go to Japan itself, the harder it will be.
The
Japs are dangerous people and they aren’t funny when they’ve got guns in their
hands. It would be tragic for us to underestimate their power to do us damage,
or their will to do it. To me it looks like soul-trying days for us in the
years ahead.
Source: Rocky Mountain News, February
26, 1945: from a scrapbook given to Indiana University by Mrs. Henry Schoon.
Pictures courtesy of The Lilly Library, Indiana University, Bloomington,
Indiana
DOCUMENT
7: Remembering the war in New Guinea
Crossing
the Saruwaged: A life and death gamble (General page)
51st
Division (commander, Lieutenant General NAKANO Hidemitsu) landed in Lae in
eastern New Guinea in February 1943. They fought successfully for two months
against Australian and US attacks on the Lae and Salamaua areas. The Allied army,
however, landed a division (approx. 13,000 troops) on 4 September at the mouth
of the Busu River north of Lae, followed by an Australian Army division
(approx. 2,000 troops) that dropped on Nadzab, east of Lae, on 5 September.
NAKANO
was surrounded by a larger army and was prepared for a glorious last stand. The
commander of the 18th Army, General ADACHI Hatazô, however, would not permit
this action, and decided on crossing the uncharted wilds of the Saruwaged Range
that towered before them – some 4,500 metres above sea level. This plan was
proposed by the engineer, Lieutenant KITAMOTO. The division limped into Kiari
on the north coast after a month-long, gruelling march.
This
"death march" across the mountains from Lae to Kiari was
approximately 400 kilometres. The plan was for a twenty-day march averaging 20
kilometres per day. It was mid-summer when the troops had advanced to the
coastal area around Lae. For troops with summer uniforms and preparations, the
bitter cold of the mountains, where it fell to minus 15–20 degrees, was
intolerably harsh. They initially advanced by cutting a path through the
trackless jungle. A single-file line of over 8,700 troops marched out from
between the jaws of the enemy.
Almost
all the troops, already weary from fighting at Salamaua, were running fevers
over 40 degrees from malaria, were starved, exhausted, and cold. It was like a
march into hell while offering up funeral dirges.
What
brought this march to a successful end beyond all wildest hopes? In addition to
a sense of duty, it was probably the tempering of mind and body born out of a
strict day-and-night training regime.
Military
exercises were planned around large-scale formations of armies, and divisions
were formed from one district, and continued for an extended period.
The
commander of the 8th Area Army Headquarters in Rabaul, General IMAMURA Hitoshi,
recalled the following from his time as a company commander.
I had
decided as a company commander to continue to carry out military exercises
without fail every Friday by marching. It was usual to march on a 30km round
trip.
This
extreme strength of mind and body engendered confidence in the lower ranks.
Further,
the Divisional commander, NAKANO, recalled the following:
The
line of withdrawal over the Saruwaged was surveyed by the engineer Lieutenant
KITAMOTO. He was sent from Rabaul on New Britain to guide us, and he led the
way over the mountains. Many fell sick or dead on the path, but the strength of
KITAMOTO’s unit (approx. 50 men) brought us some success. Without him, almost
all would have perished. He moved ceaselessly from the rear to the front of the
army, all the while monitoring supplies and the situation of the enemy.
KITAMOTO
was a high-ranking member of the Japanese long distance running team in the
pre-war period. He was selected to represent Japan in the 5,000m and 10,000m
events at the Los Angles Olympics. His bravery, and the strength of his legs
through the uncharted jungle and over rugged mountains, was a ray of hope to
the military campaign. It would be no exaggeration to say that his robustness
of mind and body, tempered through the rigours of the marathon, was the single
most effective reason for the success of the operation.
The
crossing of the Saruwaged is living proof of a military operation that
succeeded beyond all expectations through the application of extraordinary
physical and mental strength.
Bôeichô
Bôei Kenshûjo Senshishitu (ed.), Senshi sôsho: Minami Taiheiyô rikugun
sakusen 3: Munda—Saramoa (Official war history South Pacific Area army
operations, vol. 3: Munda, Salamaua), Tokyo: Asagumo Shinbunsha, 1970.
DOCUMENT
8: Interview
with Seno Samare (Interview)
(Indigenous perspective)
This interview was
conducted by Dr Iwamoto Hiromitsu and transcribed/translated by Pastor Jacob
Aramans
Dr
Iwamoto: What is
your Name?
Samare
: My name is Seno
Samare.
During
the war I was a young man and I used to stay with the Japanese Navy. I stayed
with them until one time when I was beaten up by a navy officer. As a result I
got up and ran away. Then I came back to them and because of my good testimony
they took me back and I stayed with them. I was brought to the officer in
charge where the navy officers wanted me to become their cook so I started
working for them. When I stayed and cooked for them I found out that, this
particular group of Japanese were dangerous and aggressive. If a person made a
mistake and if they found out they would beat him up. Mercy was far beyond
them. They found that I was a nice person. I was quick to listen and do
whatever they told me to do. Regardless of whether it was good or bad I had no
choice but to do it before they did any thing to me for not listening to them.
Because
of this I behaved well and happily stayed with them. They would not allow any body
else to come and cook for them. At times they would allow me to have free time.
Whatever food I cooked or they cooked we shared together. Whatever meat, pig's
meat, fish, cuscus or snake, we all shared together. During my stay with the
Japanese, and according to my observation, I saw that when people did not
follow the rules and regulations set by the war administration or caused any
silly things they would do bad things to them. During the war I stayed with
Kisisang, Hutlowesang and many others. Hutlowesang was latter executed .
Dr
Iwamoto: Tell me
more about him?
Samare:
He used to look
after the Chinese. But the other Japanese wanted these Chinese to be executed
and he said “no, they don’t have to kill them”. One time they told me to go
down and tell Hutlowesang to report to them. I went and brought him to our
camp. The camp was in the bush. They got him and went into the house and they
sent word to the commander who normally gives the order for executions. He
arrived, I was wondering whether he would carry out the execution. I had
nothing to say to save him as I was only a cook. I was busy cooking chicken,
pigs meat and fish. Later I learnt that he was to be executed soon. He was a
nice man, he used to look after Japanese and Chinese alike. A while later the
executioner arrived and Hutlowesang was escorted out and they made him stood on
a wooden box . The soldiers and guards took up their positions with their
swords and rifles on their sides. My heart sunk and I could not stand to see
what was going to happen anymore. His executioner came up with his long sword,
took up his position, swung three times and cut his head off. After he was
beheaded his body was put up on the box and petrol was poured onto it and his
body was burnt into ashes.
After
that they sent a message to his brother who was fighting in the bush. He
arrived and cried bitterly for his brother. He came all the way from Luburu in
the night and arrived at the camp. That was one of the executions I saw with my
own eyes while serving and living with the Japanese during the war. The
Kenpeitai were in fact very notorious people. Whatever small mistakes were made
by people they punished them for it. And their punishment was usually hard and
cruel.
Dr
Iwamoto: Did the
Kenpeitai take any of your women?
Samare:
Some times they took
our women into their prisons and they served their sentence.
Dr
Iwamoto: Do you know
how many women went with Kenpeitai to their prison?
Samare: There were quite a number of them -
I wouldn't remember the actual number. The Kenpeitai took them away and the
women were frightened but they would not do much because they knew that their
lives would be in danger if they resisted. They knew that the Kenpeitai were a
dangerous group of Japanese.
Dr
Iwamoto: Where did
those women come from?
Samare:
They came from
different villages, some from Lili, Okera and other places.
Dr
Iwamoto: You
received enough food from the Japanese?
Samare:
The people did
receive enough food from the Japanese.
Dr
Iwamoto: Is that
all?
Samare: The Japanese normally sang this
particular song (Umi Yakaba?). And it goes like this:
Uti-ti
tonaite
Nau
mi ting long yu kepa
Mi na
kava yu
Tatani
na-te
Uta
ute-bato
Katuka
nenu ya!
Dr
Iwamoto: That was
very good
Samare: That was a Japanese song.
Dr
Iwamoto: What does
it mean?
Samare: I don't know. I knew some few words
like yasi means coconut, long yasi, yasing motokoi. These are some Japanese
words.
Dr
Iwamoto: Did you go
to a Japanese school?
Samare: I didn't because I cooked for them
and most of the time they spoke their language, I picked it up and knew the
main words that they normally used everyday.
Dr
Iwamoto: Okay, is
that all?
Samare: Yes
I
would like to say a bit about the war. We were young men at that time when we
heard about the Japanese and English that they would start a war very soon. We
were playing on the road when we actually heard about this. Not long we heard
that the Japanese have landed on the shores of New Ireland in Kavieng. As we
played we could hear the sounds of the Japanese machine guns. To our suprise a
Japanese car arrived. We became frightened and people began to pass on the
message saying the war has arrived.
Japanese
carried the rifles with sharp-pointed swords on their barrels. There was a long
convoy of cars travelling from Kavieng all the way to Namatanai. When they
arrived in Namatanai and occupied the place and some of them came back and make
camps in the villages. Some of them stayed here and others residing at Luburua
and others spread to other places. As we stayed a man came and took me and we
went down to Kosuloke a village near Kavieng. We stayed there and a missionary
from Palawe came and took me and I went him.
One
time we went diving in the reefs. Some of the Japanese were also there and all
of a sudden a war plane came and fired at the Japanese. We hid ourselves under
the reefs in the sea. Some Japanese died while others received wounds, others
were fortunate: they escaped from the bullets. When the war planes left the
Japanese came and took the bodies of the dead soldiers and went to Palange
village on the coast and they poured out petrol on to the bodies and burnt them
to ashes.
We
also came out from our hiding place and got fish and walked up along the
coconut plantation and came past the guards who guarded the Japanese camp and
went our way. The Japanese were busy eating and a man walked past us he was
chewing betelnut. A Japanese came and poured out the container of water over
him and told him to go away. Probably he did not want him to chew betelnut.
Other Japanese also came and told him to go away. We saw this and continued on
our way currying our fish and went to Palange where we roasted the fish on a
fire and ate.
The
Japanese lived everywhere. After eating the fish I was told to go and cut
banana leaves to spread them on the ground as a bed to sit on. So I went down
to the bush and cut some quickly. When i was about to chop the leaves a white
man was standing there. I was suprised to see him. I threw the knife down and
ran away and told the other men not to mention any thing in case the Japanese
might hear. We quickly went back and saw that the unknown man was still
standing there and we shared some food with him.
Dr
Iwamoto: What was
his name?
Samare: I don't know his name. He must have
been an American or Australian spy.
Dr
Iwamoto: Was he
Japanese?
Samare: No. Anyway he secretly stayed with
us a night and the next day, early in the morning, he got up and took that
missionary of Palange (the missionary was a Tolai man) and disappeared. We got
up in the morning the next day and we could not find them. For us we came back
to the village. After that I went back and worked for the navy. I had a big
sore on my neck and it was very painful and as a result at times I had to stop
work and rest. I continued like that for some time. One time a Japanese who had
been observing me closely came and bursted me. I got up and ran away. I went
and worked with Kenpeitai. The boss came and assigned me to cook for him.
Dr
Iwamoto: What was
his name?
Samare:
His name was Mr Kisisang.
I became his cook and found out that he was a very nice man - he never got
cross with me. These Japanese wanted me to obey and do things willingly.
Obedience was what they wanted. I stayed with them and one night a huge snake
came in to Kisisang's house. Mr Kisisang heard the noise of the snake and woke
up and got his torch, switched it on and saw it close to him. He got his rifle
and shot it. He fired seven bullets into the snake's head and it eventually
died.
They
butchered the snake and removed all its skin, coiled it nicely and put it aside
and then they removed all the meat from the skin. When I arrived they told me
“Sino you get this meat and go and give it to the navy and these other pieces,
you give them to the boss of the boss of the other Kenpeitai”. On the way I met
a man scraping coconuts. He was so busy when I came over to him. When he saw me
he got up and said “hey brother where are you going?” I got up and said I
wanted to bring this meat to the Japanese.
Dr
Iwamoto: You brought
the snake meat to them?
Samare: Yes . The man who asked me was from
Kunak. He was one of the workers for the Japanese. I came close to him and
asked him where I should put the meat and he got up and said “you have to go
straight to the boss”. Therefore I went straight in and he was surprised to see
me. He got up and asked “you brought fish for me”. I answered “yes I brought
this for you”. “Very good man”, he said.
He
was a cripple and he could not walk properly. They normally carried him around.
As I stood by I saw one of his men. He was a local man but outside of Fotmila.
He was a police man, a member of Kenpeitai. The kempeitai are very good at
arguing with people and trying to find false in them. There as one incident
where a policeman accused an elderly man of a wrong doing. He shouted at him
and said " you didn't do this thing but you must confess that you did
this". So the policeman kept on forcing him until he confessed. If a man
refused to say no, he would be kicked, punched or the policeman would do any
thing to him.
In
another incident I saw an elderly man was pulled by the policeman and was
thrown down near a big stone. He was kicked and punched. I stood by and felt so
worried about that man and tears came down from my eyes. Another time I saw
three man who were also punished. The policeman brought them down to the sago
palm trees and they cleared and cut them.
After
seeing what was going on I walked towards the main road. A policeman followed
me up and said “hey you must come back”. I stood still and thought to myself
what was happening to me. The policeman came up to me and said “you have to
come back, go and see the commanding officer”. He said “you have to discuss
certain things with him”. I asked him “for what”. So the policeman replied
"you remember when they punished the man earlier on and your tears came
down and you cried for him?". That was the reason why he wanted me to
report to him.
I got
up and said “okay I will go with you but before that I must report that to my
immediate boss, Mr Kissisang, then I can go to court or report to the Kenpeitai
commanding officer”. He followed me down to the village and I went straight to
Kisisang and told him about what was happening to me. He got up and asked
“where is that policeman?” The policeman came before him and he asked him why
and who gave him orders to bring me to the court? The policeman got up and said
it was the boss. But Mr Kisisang got up and shouted at him and said " the
commander said that but I didn't hear that". Kisisang go up and gave the
orders to grab hold of the policeman and beat him up to almost half death
and later they brought him down the road to the Kenpeitai camp.
After
this at Lukuruma there were no other incidents. No more executions, punishments
or other incidents like this ever happened here. The Japanese looked after us
well. Kisisang lived at Lakurumau and people came from all other parts and
villages and saw him. The navy also lived here and looked after us well. The
Japanese here didn't want people to say or mention anything about the Americans
or the Australians or even take sides with them. If they did find out a
particular person or those particular people would be brought over to court and
if found guilty would be executed. This type of crime according to the war time
laws is a serious one. The penalty is death.
One
time they handcuffed my father, accusing him of stealing because they saw him
wearing Japanese shoes. They beat him on the beach, tied his arms behind his
back and brought him up to the road and later punched and kicked him. They told
Mr Kisisang about it and he got up and told us to go up to the road and wait
there. I got angry with the policemen and asked for the reason why they had
handcuffed my father and wanted to punish him. When I asked this they got up
and punched, and also handcuffed, me. Kisisang was waiting with other men and
saw what was happening. Later the policemen came and asked Kisisang for food
but he refused and said “I don't have any food, you already punished my boy”.
The Japanese went in to their car and drove away.
During
the war we normally walked around in the night to spy on our enemies. Whenever
we saw them we didn't do anything to them. One time we saw some Japanese
walking along the beach. I don't know where they went to. Our village was
situated near the station. The Japanese made their gardens from one end of the
village to the other end. Because of that they never fell short of food and we
also did not run out of food. Other villages came and got food from us. Many
people who stayed far from the Japanese and the Kenpeitai did not know what was
happening however I saw every bit of it as I stayed close to Kisisang.
The
place where they normally got people and put them as prisoners was wet and
water was everywhere. The men who were put into the prison were those who were
accused by the kenpeitai, the police. Some times without any charges laid on
them, they were unnecessarily put into the prison. Many of those who were found
guilty in this prison were killed. Their bodies were buried up there on the
hill. Those two men who were punished by cutting and clearing the sago palm
trees were later executed and their bodies were buried there under those palm
trees where both of them worked. Two other men were also put into prison in a cave.
While others were executed those two remained in the prison. One was from
Manuai, his name was John Moap. While they were in prison this Manuai man got
up very early one morning and decided to run away. The cave was dark however he
saw a small light shining through a hole. He got up and said to other man, we
must run away. But the other man said “I am afraid”.
John
got up and escaped through that opening in the cave. He climbed up to the top
and eventually escaped into the bush. The other who decided to stay was brought
over and executed. His body was buried up on the hill with others who were
executed before him. When they dug the holes, these holes were not deep enough.
They got the bodies and dumped them in and covered them. Wild pigs and dogs
normally went and dug up the graves and ate the carcasses. Many of us were
afraid of the Japanese. They came into our village and got our pigs and
chickens before our eyes. If people said any thing against them they would be
punished severely.
We
the people of Lakurumau never received any severe punishment from the Japanese.
As we stayed on they came and said “Seno, you will go and see Hutolwesang and
ask him to come over”. So I went and on my way I met a Chinese man who was a
guard there. He asked me, "where are you going?" I answered and said
I wanted to see Hutolwesang. He asked me to jump onto his taxi and I said my
boss would come and get cross with me if I went with him. But he insisted that
I must go with him. Therefore I got on and he drove on. When we arrived my boss
saw me and asked me “what are you doing, Seno”?
The
Chinese replied “we are going that way”. He got up and hit him on his head “I
am going to report you to Hutolwesang in the afternoon”. I got off there and
went and cooked food for the evening. I also boiled some chickens for the
soldiers who were camped in the bush. I also boiled some water. The boss came
in the afternoon got the hot water and went and washed and dressed himself. He
got up and said, ''Seno' both of us will go ‘, so we got up and went and I saw
a Japanese standing with a long sword in his hand. As we arrived I heard the
Japanese speak to each other in their language. They brought Hutolwesang and
made him stand before us. He was about to be executed. The soldier with the
sword swung two times and on the third time he chopped of his head. His head
rolled over and his body fell to the ground. It was a very cruel killing.
Then
they got petrol and poured it onto his body and burned it to ashes. His brother
came and got the ashes and mourned for him and later went and buried him. His
execution came about because he helped the Chinese. The Japanese were very
strict on the laws they set during the war.
Dr
Iwamoto: Is that
all?
Samare:
When the war grew
stronger the people ran into the bushes and hid themselves in the caves. The
warships anchored in the sea nearby. The submarine fired the torpedoes to the
coast.
Dr
Iwamoto: Whose
submarines were those, Japanese or Americans?
Samare:
They belonged to the
Americans.
Dr
Iwamoto: Have you
gone to school?
Samare: I went to the school, but not very
long.
Dr
Iwamoto: How many
weeks did you go to school?
Samare: It wasn't that long.
There
was a song we learnt during school and it goes like this:
Wotete
Tonaite
Nau
mi ting long yu kepa
Mi na
kava yu
Totori
nate Uta utuke butu
Katka
naru......
Dr
Iwamoto: How many
kids went to the school?
Samare:
About a hundred
plus. The kids went to school but as the war grew stronger the kids ran away.
When the war was about to end the aero planes dropped papers in every village.
On the paper it was written that the war was over. The Australians and
Americans won the war. The people who were hiding in the bushes came back to
the village. It was a frightening experience during the war. Today we are happy,
but during the war it was different.
Iwamoto: Good.
DOCUMENT 9: Commitment of the Moroccan Goums to the WORLD WAR II
Casablanca (Morocco), November
1942
The Allied Forces, under command
of the US, arrives at the shore of Morocco the 8th November, 1942. They want to
free Morocco from the Franco-German Nazi-oppressor, The Sultan pledge alliance
with the Allied Forces and the Sultans army (Infantry and Cavalry) joined the
fights against the Franco-German troops. After 3 days of heavy battle the
French troops switch side to the Alliance, defeating the Germans. The Moroccan
people are relieved, especially the Jews who fled Europe to escape the Nazism
but got caught in Morocco by the French army (Morocco was occupied by France at
that moment) when France surrendered to Germany and joined the Nazi-regime.
Although The Sultan of Morocco refused to hand over the Jews to the
Franco-German occupiers and protected them he couldn't do much when they got
caught by the Nazi's and were transfer to the Nazi-camps in the dessert.
Casablanca (Morocco), January
1943
January 1943, the Alliance, at a
Conference at the Alliances Headquarters in Casablanca Morocco, decides to use
Moroccan troops in the Allied Forces to free North-Africa and Europe from the
Nazi-regime. The Moroccan Infantry and Cavalry has already been integrated into
the Alliance Force, The Sultan of Morocco sends a call to the Mountains for
help to free Morocco and the rest of the world of Nazism. The Mountain-men
answers the Sultan's call and start descending from the mountains joining the
Forces, because of the Mountain-men’s lack in confidence in Moroccan army
officers (Morocco did surrender to the French occupiers) the Alliance decided
to create new regiments of Mountain-men only, with their own officers under
French supervision, a part of the troops under the French General De Gaulle.
The alliance has high expectations of these Mountain-men later to be known as
the Moroccan Goums (Goumier in French), considering the French experience when
they tried to invade the Mountain-men's soil. The tactical expectations of the
Goums will be far exceeded during the World War2, no-one expected the Goums to
be so good in warfare, they became the secret weapon of the alliance.
Four Moroccan Goum-groups
(regimental-sized units) served with the Allied forces during World War II.
They specialized in night raiding operations and mountain warfare against the
forces of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany during 1943-45. Goumier units were
also used to man the front line in mountainous and other rough terrain areas,
so the regular infantry units could operate along more profitable axes of
advance
Tunisia, 1943
The 1st GSM (a regimental-sized
unit) fought on the Tunisian front as part of the Moroccan March Division from
December 1942, and was joined by the 2nd GSM in January 1943. After the Tunisia
Campaign, the French organized two additional groups and retitled the groups as
groupe de tabors marocains (G.T.M.) Each group contained a command goum
(company) and three tabors (battalions) of three goums. A tabor contained four
81-mm mortars and totaled 891 men. Each infantry goum was authorized 210 men,
one 60-mm mortar, two light machineguns, and seven automatic rifles.
An anonymous junior officer from
the U.S. 26th Infantry Regiment, which fought alongside the Goumiers in
Tunisia, wrote that:
Two companies of Goums...were
stationed next to our CP, and these had sent out two raiding parties the same
night... Mostly mountain men from Morocco, these silent, quick-moving raiders
were excellent at night raids, and in surprise attacks. How successful they had
been was attested by the two [French] officers who had command of the companies
of the Goumiers. The companies lacked most of the clothing, equipment and
almost no weapons necessary for warfare. The 2 raids had remedied that.
Inspections the next day revealed a good many German articles of clothing under
their conventional brown and white vertical striped robes. Their rifles were a
mixture of the best German and Italian weapons. Mess equipment, and a good deal
of the food was also of enemy origin, as were the knives, pistols, blankets and
toilet articles.
From questioning of the
Italian prisoners, it was evident that they had either heard or experienced the
merciless raids of the Goums, and they wanted no part of them. Part of the
Goums' success lay in their silence as they moved forward, and in their highly
perfected art of camouflage. One anecdote ran that one warrior had so
successfully camouflaged himself all day in full sight of the Germans that a
German officer had wandered over to what he thought was a bush, and had
urinated on the motionless head of the Moroccan soldier who bore the trial
well, but who marked that particular officer down for special attention that
night, it was the officer's last night amongst the living. Goums did not take
any prisoners, and it was well-known to the Germans and Italians what befell
anyone who ran afoul of those Moroccans. There was certainly no desire to have
our battalion tangle with either of the two raiding parties sent out the same
night.
Italy, 1943-45
The 4th Tabor of Moroccan Goums
fought in the Sicilian Campaign, landing at Licata on July 14, 1943, and was
attached to the U.S. Seventh Army. The Goumiers of the 4th Tabor were attached
to the U.S. 1st Infantry Division on July 27, 1943 and were recorded in the
U.S. 26th Infantry Regiment's log files for their courage. Upon the Goums
arrival at Italy many Italian soldiers surrendered en masse, while the Germans
began staging major retreats away from known goumiers presence.
The Italian campaign of World War
II is perhaps the most famous and most controversial in the history of the
Goumiers. The 4th Group of Moroccan Tabors shipped out for Italy in November
1943, and was followed in January 1944 by the 3rd Group, and reinforced by the
1st Group in April 1944.
In Italy, the Allies suffered a
long stalemate at the German Gustav Line, a Line of German/Italian defenses
supposed to be Impossible to defeat, with big looses for the Alliance Forces
and no breakthrough in sight. Until May 1944, three Goumier groups arrived to
help, under the name Corps de Montagne (Mountain Commando Troops),
attack through the Aurunci Mountains during Operation Diadem, the fourth Battle
of Monte Cassino. "Here the Goums more than proved their value as light,
highly mobile, mountain troops who could penetrate the most vertical terrain in
fighting order and with a minimum of logistical requirements. Most military
analysts consider the Goumiers' maneuver as the critical victory that finally
opened the way to Rome."
The German commander-in-chief
stationed at the German Gustav Line wrote to his Führer Hitler; The
impossible has been done, the Moroccan Goums have crushed and conquered our
line of defenses
The Allied commander, U.S.
General Mark Clark also paid tribute to the Goumiers and the Moroccan regulars
of the Tirailleur units: In spite of the stiffening enemy resistance, the
2nd Moroccan-Goumier Division penetrated the Gustave Line in less than two
day’s fighting. The next 48 hours on the French front were decisive. The
knife-wielding Goumiers swarmed over the hills, particularly at night, and the
entire force showed an aggressiveness hour after hour that the Germans could
not withstand. Cerasola, San Giorgio, Mt. D’Oro, Ausonia and Esperia were
seized in one of the most brilliant and daring advances of the war in Italy...
For this performance, which was to be a key to the success of the entire drive
on Rome, I shall always be a grateful admirer of General Juin and his
magnificent Goums.
DOCUMENT
10: THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS DECLARES WAR
WITH JAPAN [Inter-Allied
Review, December 15, 1941.]
On
December 8th, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands issued the following
proclamation:
The
Kingdom of the Netherlands considers itself in a state of war with Japan.
While
negotiations which were in progress between the governments of the United
States and Japan were not yet completed, and while President Roosevelt
exhibited the greatest patience and did his utmost to preserve peace in the
Pacific, and while an appeal which President Roosevelt had sent to the Emperor
of Japan still remained unanswered, Japanese forces attacked American and
British territory without a declaration of war.
Thus
war has been forced on the United States and the British Empire. You know how
Germany, in the same manner that Japan now emulates in Asia, attacked many
countries in Europe, one after another. Japan, motivated by the same spirit of
aggression and the same disregard of law, follows in the footsteps of her German
Axis partner.
Neither
the safety of the territories of our Kingdom in the Far East, nor the Ties
which bind us to our British Allies, nor the special relations which exist
between the Netherlands and the United States allow the Government of the
Kingdom to look on passively.
The
Kingdom of the Netherlands considers itself in a state of war with Japan
because the aggression-which seeks to put out of action, one by one, the
countries which desire peace-can only be halted through a strong coalition.
Now
that the American and British peoples, with whom we are closely bound in
friendship, are attacked, the Kingdom of the Netherlands places all its armed
forces and resources at the disposal of the allied war effort.
The
development of our Kingdom for centuries has been guided by a unified destiny.
In the hurricane which threatens this development, it rises with resolute unity
to maintain its place in the world. The Netherlands did not hesitate to defend
herself immediately, with courage, when she was viciously attacked in Europe.
The Netherlands East Indies will not waver now that she is menaced by a similar
attack.
The
Indies stood with the Netherlands in her hour of trial. The Netherlands and our
West Indies will stand with the East Indies now that the Indies are resisting
aggression. I rely on the Navy, the Army and the Air Force, the authorities and
the civilian services.
I
and all my subjects rely on the courage, resolution and determination of all
those in the Indies. Trusting in God, whom all my subjects desire to serve in
freedom and who know that our cause is righteous and our conscience clear, we
accept the challenge together with our powerful allies.
We
will triumph and our Kingdom, beset but at the same time purified, steeled and
standing with inviolable pride will survive stronger than ever to live under
our free banner in a world free from aggression.
In
the Indies, Governor General Van Starkenborgh Stachouwer made the following
declaration by radio to the population of the Netherlands East Indies:
People
of the Netherlands East Indies: In its unexpected attack on American and
British territories while diplomatic negotiations were still in progress, the
Japanese empire has consciously adopted a course of aggression. These attacks,
which have thrown the United States of America and the British empire into
active war on the side of already-fighting China, have as their object the
establishment of Japanese supremacy in the whole of east and southeast Asia.
These aggressions also menace the Netherlands East Indies in no small measure.
The Netherlands government accepts the challenge and takes up arms against the
Japanese empire.
DOCUMENT
11
Los Veteranos: Latino Americans
in WWII
Over 500,000 Latinos (including 350,000 Mexican
Americans and 53,000 Puerto Ricans) served in WWII. Exact numbers are difficult
because, with the exception of the 65th Infantry Regiment from Puerto Rico,
Latinos were not segregated into separate units, as African Americans were.
When war was declared on December 8, 1941, thousands of Latinos were among
those that rushed to enlist. Latinos served with distinction throughout Europe,
in the Pacific Theater, North Africa, the Aleutians and the Mediterranean.
Among other honors earned, thirteen Medals of Honor were awarded to Latinos for
service during WWII.
In the Pacific Theater, the 158th Regimental Combat
Team, of which a large percentage was Latino and Native American, fought in New
Guinea and the Philippines. They so impressed General MacArthur that he called
them “the greatest fighting combat team ever deployed in battle.” Latino
soldiers were of particular aid in the defense of the Philippines. Their
fluency in Spanish was invaluable when serving with Spanish speaking Filipinos.
These same soldiers were part of the infamous “Bataan Death March.” On Saipan,
Marine PFC Guy Gabaldon, a Mexican-American from East Los Angeles who had
learned Japanese in his ethnically diverse neighborhood, captured 1,500
Japanese soldiers, earning him the nickname, the “Pied Piper of Saipan.”
In the European Theater, Latino soldiers from the 36th
Infantry Division from Texas were among the first soldiers to land on Italian
soil and suffered heavy casualties crossing the Rapido River at Cassino. The
88th Infantry Division (with draftees from Southwestern states) was ranked in
the top 10 for combat effectiveness.
Latino Women and WWII
Latinas served during WWII
despite cultural barriers that had in the past prevented them from leaving
their families and traveling long distances alone. Bilingualism was highly
sought after during the war and so they found important work in cryptology, communications
and interpretation. As linguists, nurses and Red Cross aids, and in the WAACS,
WAVES, and Marine Corps Women’s Reserve, Latinas broke through both gender and
cultural barriers to serve their country.
DOCUMENT
12: GERMAN SPIES IN LATIN AMERICA
Chapter II
Axis Agent Operations in Latin America
In his
report on his trip to England in 1943, Colonel Alfred McCormack stated that the
Coast Guard had abdicated to the British Government Code & Cipher School
(GC&CS) its responsibility for all clandestine communications other than
those concerning the Western Hemisphere. While McCormack was certainly
overstating the case, with equal certainty the Coast Guard's primary interest
was in agent communications between Germany and Latin America. These
communications were primarily the responsibility of Operation BOLIVAR,l1 the
code name for an espionage project carried out by Department VI 0 4 of the SO. It was active in Brazil,
Paraguay, and Argentina, with ramifications reaching into the official circles
of those countries.12
SARGO
Johannes
Siegfried Becker (SARGO) was the main figure in the project and the person
responsible for most of the organizing of espionage operations in South
America. Becker was first sent to Buenos Aires by the SO in May 1940. His
original mission, and that of Heinz Lange (JANSEN) who followed him shortly
after, was sabotage. In August, because
ofprotestsbytheGermanembassy,thiswasrevisedtooneofespionageonly. Beckerand
Lange were soon identified by the authorities as agents, and in September 1940,
moved to Brazil where Becker made contact with Gustav Albrecht Engels.
Gustav
Albrecht Engels (ALFREDO) had originally been recruited by Jobst Raven of
Abwehr I W in 1939 to provide economic intelligence on the Western Hemisphere
to the Abwehr. He had estab- lished an economic espionage organization,
reporting to Germany via the radio transmitter owned by his company, the
Allgemeine Elektrizitaets Gesellschaft (General Electric Company),
headquartered in Krefeld. Becker trans- formed Engels's organization into an
espionage organization reporting on all subjects of interest to German
intelligence. By mid-1941, Engels's radio station, eEL, which was located in Sao
Paulo, Brazil, was functioning smoothly with agents both in Brazil and the
United States. It provided information on shipping, economic and industrial
affairs, war production and military movements in the United States, and
political and militaryin the United States who frequently came to Brazil to
talk to Engels was Ousko
DOCUMENT
13: ABORIGINAL INVOLVEMENT IN WORLD WAR TWO
1 April 1942, A Mr S McClintock from Perth wrote
to the Prime Minister, the Honourable Mr John Curtin, with a suggestion:
As the
Australian aborigines up North are wonderful bushmen- and unbeatable at finding
water etc. – and as they will help anyone for a plug of tobacco and gaudy
clothes, it seems to me that they should all be removed far inland from any
likely enemy landing places – Darwin, Wyndham, Broome, Carnarvon etc. – as if
taken by the Japanese they might prove very useful to them as guides, and in
securing water etc.
The Prime Minister acknowledged his letter and
forwarded it to the Minister for the Army, the Honourable Frank Forde. On 18
May 1942, Mr Forde replied to Mr McClintock saying:
Your interest
in putting forward this suggestion is much appreciated and, while the idea is
basically sound, it is not considered practicable with the means or time at our
disposal.
Despite the early ban on their enlistment, a
number of Aboriginal volunteers either claimed another nationality or just
renounced their Aboriginality. Some recruiting officers either through
indifference or confusion allowed Indigenous Australians to slip through.
Outstanding soldiers such as Reg Saunders and Charles Mene slipped through and
demonstrated that fears of disharmony between black and white personnel were
unfounded. In some other instances, however, there were various repercussions
when some of those who were keen to enlist were sent home.
In mid-1941, changes in attitude
towards Indigenous Australians enabled numerous Aborigines to enlist in some of
the smaller units of the services where they were able to integrate and
sometimes to become NCOs, commanding white soldiers. In these smaller units the
Indigenous Australians were able to leave the prejudices of their civilian
world behind them and be accepted as Australian servicemen. The Torres Strait
Light Infantry battalion is one such example.
DOCUMENT 14: NAVAJO CODE TALKERS
